Group+4-Japan

=**Japan: A Look into their Past and Present**=

**Why Japan Joined the War**
Japan's entrance into World War II is not unlike that of Germany in that both countries had a number of combined factors that contributed to their joining the war. Like Germany, Japan's economic situation was dire prior to the war. With the failing economy, resources and space for their growing population began to dwindle. Meanwhile, China had plenty of both, a fact for which Japan resented their east Asian rival. Like Germany, Japan needed a drastic change and saw a militaristic rise to power in the government. A combination of imperialistic ideals, the need for resources, deteriorating international relationships, and racism led to Japan's occupation of a region in China known as Manchuria in 1931, where they established a puppet government. Following this invasion, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations due to criticism for their actions in China, which further deteriorated international relationships and perceptions of Japan.

The official start of the Second Sino-Japanese War is often cited as July 7, 1937, when Beijing was captured during the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. This was one of the causes for World War II. While this occurred, Japan also tried to move people to Britain and America. However, Britain and the U.S. refused to allow them in their county and this increased Japan's isolation. Meanwhile, the United States stopped the transport of goods, including aviation gasoline, into Japan, which was seen as an act of aggression on the U.S.'s part. This led to the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, after which war was declared on Japan.

Japan's Relationships With Other Countries
Since the early 1900’s, Japan has been involved in wars with many European and Asian countries, such as China and Russia. Their ultimate goal was to claim and conquer most of the countries in the pacific and they weren’t going to let any country stand in their way. In the 1940’s, Japan joined the Axis powers, Germany and Italy, as they shared similar values and Goals. But what really makes all these countries similar or different from Japan?

During WWII, the Soviet Union and Japan were in the middle of a land battle over the Kuriles. Soviet Union eventually won these islands, however the two countries still dispute over the Kuriles ownership.
 * Japan and the Soviet Union **

Japan also attempted to take Soviet land, which sharply ended the Soviet-Japan relationship. Japan and the Soviet Union then had many battles over land, such as the Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938 and the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939. The Soviet Union won these wars and Japan finally backed down from trying to take any of the Soviet’s land.

In 1941, Japan and the Soviet Union signed a neutrality pact. Japan stuck to this pact even when Germany decided to attack the Soviet Union. However in 1945, after the defeat of Germany, the Soviet Union invaded Manchuria, which Japan had claimed many years before. This was also around the time that Japan got attacked by the United States and had to deal with Nuclear Fallout. Needless to say, the Soviet Union was successful in their attack. The Soviet Union and Japan refused to draw up a peace treaty and are still not on good terms with each other.

Japan and the United States had been heatedly involved in conflict for years leading up to WWII. Many of these conflicts stemmed from Japans feeling of inferiority. The US also does not agree with Japan’s methods of expanding. They found it to be undiplomatic. Japan’s desire for land stemmed from their scarcity of energy.
 * Japan and the United States **

Japan had a heavy dependency on imports, so much that they imported 90% of their goods, 80% of that coming from the US. In 1940, America pass the Export Control Act, which basically cut Japan off from receiving resources from the US.

Japan eventually got tired of the United States constant criticisms of their culture and their attempts to constrict Japan, which then led up to the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1941, Japan launched their attack on Pearl Harbor, which then caused the US to declare War on Japan. The war progressed over a 4 year time period and involved the axis powers and Russia to get involved. The US ended the war by dropping two nuclear bombs on Japan, forcing them to Surrender.

Since the end of WWII, Japan and the United States’ relationship has been a confusing one. There were a few more wars, however they are now on better terms and could even be considered allies.

Japan and Germany had similar goals during WWII, but different ways of going about it. Japan’s main goal was to expand throughout the pacific islands and Asia. Germany however was trying to purify Europe (and the world) of all imperfect cultures (in their opinion). Both of these countries attempted to achieve this goal with mass exterminations and breakouts of wars in places of rebellion.
 * Japan and Germany **

Germany also had the problem of making and breaking too many pacts. Germany was first in an alliance with Japan and Italy, plotting to take down the Soviets. But when Germany found out that Japan had relations with the US, who were trying to team up with the Soviets to take down Germany, Germany made a pact with the Soviets to keep peace between them, without alerting the Japanese. ** Japan’s Origins, Related War Crimes, and Comparison to Nazi Germany **

Imperial Japan in the beginning of the twentieth century was emerging as a formidable power on the world stage. Their introduction from centuries of cultural seclusion from as far as the late nineteenth century to the diplomatic and national policies during the period between two world wars made the Japanese influence in the Pacific and Asia more apparent by the 1930’s. To understand the background of their expansionist views and to their eventual atrocities against humanity, historians look at the time period at the turn of the century to their defeat in 1945. Their emergence as a formidable power, their involvement as an ally in World War I, government and economic troubles during peacetime, and their eventual plans for military expansion to Asia and the Pacific led Japan down a path with a goal, if not similar to Nazi Germany, to control the will of the Asiatic people and to oust all European influence from the territories that they held.

** __Origins; 1900’s to the late 1930’s__ **

__1900’s: Expansion and Stance As A World Power__

In the short time that Japan was making international relationships, its faced issues that came with its modernization to be an industrial power. However, it faced its problems and overcame them seeing that the small island nation needed resources outside its influence in territories under Imperial European jurisdiction through expansion. It’s stance as a stable power at the turn of the century was proven over its victory in a war with imperial Russia in 1905. A small power in face of a powerful expansive empire had odd against them, but with Japan, it was proven many times in its history to preserve itself militarily. This was the first instance in the twentieth century that “an Asian power could defeat a European power1”.

Their issue to replace seclusion in their foreign policy was difficult. Japan had a massive population and little territories to support growing numbers of its citizens. With the issue of other imperial powers like France, Britain, Russia and the United States reaching out to Asian territories, Japan itself had to turn into an imperial power to expand what wasn’t taken under European influence.

Their position as an ally during World War I (1914-1918), affected their usefulness very little. Since the majority of the war was fought on the fronts of France and Germany, Japan saw little conflict in Asia with its focus on either taking advantage of China or forming an alliance with them to keep Russia in place. For all its involvement with minor issues in Asia, Japan prospered from territorial gains as well as “a demand for Japanese goods2” during the war. The issue whether involvement with China for Japanese interests would stretch over the next two decades after World War I.

__1920’s: Diplomatic policies and Domestic Issues and Ideologies__

The 1920’s brought more issues internationally and domestically for the Japanese Empire. It still needed to maintain its assets and resources to keep its possessions. Talks with the powers after the war to discuss settlements of who had what and how checks and balances should be administered between Western and Asian powers (the victors from the war which included Japan).

The Washington Agreements of 1921-22 took place to arrange the spoils of war from World War I. In a sense it was similar to the agreements in Versailles in 1918, but the difference was distribution of responsibilities in the Pacific. The agreements that were included in the agreements were “rights in the Pacific in respect of insular possessions and dominions; to confer on any dispute; and to communicate in the case of threats from other powers3”. There was also dispute on naval dominance in the Pacific since it was a control on Japan’s growing navy.

Japan had offered the Twenty One Demands back during the war to persuade Asian powers like China, Manchuria, Korea, etc. to essentially be under Japanese influence in times of emergency. Foreign delegates mostly from the United States basically shot the idea down and have Japan adhere to the Open Door Policy and would agree to anything that “impaired American rights…China’s integrity4”.

American legislation in regards to Asian immigration held a certain prejudice between the developing militant government of Japan and the United States. To exclude completely Japanese immigrants from those already in the United States puts a strain on diplomatic relations with the West and Japan’s support for a parliamentary democracy for their nation.

There was early involvement in Manchuria as a result of the change of government by a clash of industrialist and militant policies. This was an instance where Japanese aggression can be debated on where and when it started. Although limited, their actions carried a strong message to pro-militant factions and raised support to continue aggression eventually into China

The eventual crash of the stock market in the United States in 1929 spread to economic troubles in Japan and resorted to aggressive expansion

__1930’s: First signs of military aggression and first accounts of war crimes__

The start of the decade looked into Japan’s solution to attain economic stability since the start of the Great Depression. Foreign policy had been changed to such a way that any move made by Japan was justified.

The aggression in China was to put their influence there before nationalism was established and the threat of Communist expansion from the Soviet Union into China. The Manchurian Incident of 1931 was the response to these two issues. The Japanese went in and instilled control through military force and established a government with Japanese influence to claim the country as its own. It was their “divine right” to be there and by 1936 it was to declare that the actions taken was to promote prosperity and coexistence in East Asia. This was attempted before under the parliamentary democratic government back in 1915, but with little success. The only way that the Japanese had to enforce their policies unto Asian nations was to be the aggressors

The situation back on the island nation was no better than it was in Germany. Various military factions lashed out against government officials ending up in numerous deaths and the recognition of a military dictatorship under the Emperor Hirohito, but control was delegated with high-ranking officials in the Japanese Imperial Army. All other political parties inside of Japan were eliminated or wiped out by 1940.

The war started earlier for Japan, but it was only in their sphere of influence before escalation into a world war with the United States. The war with China starting in 1936-37 was a result of the building conflicts domestically and abroad.

** __Build up to Pearl Harbor 1941 and a Second World War__ **

__Economics__

The reason that Japan had to expand the way that it did was not only to maintain economic stability, but also to disperse a population that was over 50 million across the Pacific. Japan was only a nation half the size of California and needed additional space to accommodate its increasing population. This result was from rapid industrialization and westernization since the late nineteenth century.

During the Depression, Japanese goods lost their value and were less desirable. China in this case with impending threats from Japan decides to boycott Japan’s goods. Desire for Japanese goods have reduced since the nation was an ally during World War I. Territories were either not dispersed well or denied to Japan. Since territories with surplus minerals and resources were essential for producing goods, Japan’s economy was further reduced.

__Prejudice towards American ideals__

The immigration laws established near the beginning of the twentieth century was a factor for the strain between both nations. Since the laws mentioned a complete exclusion of Asian immigrants but only a limiting factor for Europeans, the Japanese based it off of a racial hatred towards them.

__United States Involvement__

By the start of the European war with Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939, the United States was pressured to remain a neutral power. With pressure from Britain to join and continuing expansion of the Japanese Empire, it can only place economic sanctions against Japan and provide supplies and voluntary personnel.

By 1940, The United States had issued a trade embargo against Japan. This cut Japan’s receptions of American export of oil, steel, and scrap. These were necessary components to Japan’s military expansion and campaign against China.

__The Imperial Conference of September 1941__

With growing issues of military strength, diplomacy, and economic embargoes, Japan has issued minimum demands to the United States or they would go to war. The demands were stated as follows:

“Immediate revocation of the economic sanctions adopted against Japan; a free hand in China; and a free hand in Indochina until the conclusion of peace, after which she might relinquish the colony5”.

The Empire of Japan essentially wanted the embargoes lifted so that they can still continue their war with China and Southeast Asia and in its conquest make them colonies. If they accepted, they would eventually release Southeast Asia from its influence.

The United States rejected the demands outright a month later.

On Dec. 7th, 1941, Japanese naval (evidence of reconnaissance submarines) and air forces attacked the United States Fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor in Oahu, Hawaii. War was declared and the United States began its 4-year conflict with Japan up to 1945.

** __Japanese War Crimes (1930’s-1945)__ **

There were countless charges of crimes against humanity against military personnel of the Imperial Japanese Army. The scale of which they were committed was unprecedented. The crimes committed were numerous and can be broken down into major crimes. These are some of the crimes for which the Japanese committed.

- Mass Killing/Genocide - Human Experimentation - Chemical Warfare - Torture <span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">- Cannibalism <span style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: center 3.0in; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">- Forced Labor <span style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: center 3.0in; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">- Rape and Comfort Women

These are but a few of the numerous counts against Japan. Each will be explained and shown to light not by historians, but by the accounts of the few survivors. Citizens, POW’s, nurses, and countless others tell some account of the horrors they faced at the hands of the Imperial Japanese.

__Mass Killing/Genocide__

Definitions of genocide can be an organized extermination of an ethnic group of people. With the Japanese, not only was it organized militarily, but has been going on longer than what the Nazi’s implemented by 1936.

One example against the civilian population of China was the infamous Rape of Nanking in 1937. The Japanese were unrestricted in the conquest of China’s capital resorting to rape, looting, and indiscriminate murder of men, women and children alike. One account can summarize the extent of how far the Japanese went against the Chinese.

“The Japanese troops were then let loose like the hordes of Genghis Khan to ravish and murder. As one eyewitness described it, ‘the city appeared to have fallen into the hands of the Japanese as captured prey, and the members of the victorious army had set upon the prize to commit unlimited violence’. Small groups of Japanese soldiers roamed all over the city night and day. Many were crazed with drink, but no attempt was made by their commander or their officers to maintain discipline among the occupying forces. They looted, they burned, they raped and they murdered.”6 Another example of mass killing was the Bataan Death March where of thousands of American POW’s and civilians were either marched or shot to death after the Philippines fell in 1942.

__Human Experimentation__

The Japanese did use human subjects in their exploration of anatomy, chemistry, and physics. The methods include vivisection, exposure to deadly gas, and various medical experiments.

The most talked about group of Japanese scientists and military supervisors were those under Unit 731 along with several other groups that carried out the use of human test subjects.

__Chemical Warfare__

Unlike using gas for experimenter purposes, the Japanese also used and applied gas in warfare. The main gas that was mainly used was a grenade that contained mustard gas and was used on the civilian population. The only known account of a deadly gas being used in warfare was in Yichang in 1941 where Japanese troops used gas grenades against the village populace

__Torture__

If anything that defines the Japanese Empire for their crimes, it is through the POWs that survived the torture they implemented. There are many techniques from sketches that survivors have drawn.

One use of torture is that it is used to extract information on the whereabouts and movement of troops, supplies, and operations that change the tide of war. Most prisoners that have given information were likely executed.

Techniques vary ranging from no food or water for a couple of days with a bucket of water in front of them to an extreme form of water boarding where water is forced through the nose into their stomach while restrained with rope or barbed wire. There was also the use with tools of nature including sticks and bamboo. They were used as a shunt under the fingernails, which is very painful but not used to kill.

__Cannibalism__

There have been accounts starting by 1942 that the Japanese execute POWs for use as food. The main use on why this would happen is that supplies to the Japanese troops were either severely limited or cut off completely. Cannibalism has been used throughout the campaign in the Pacific but there could be countless victims that met the fate of this crime.

__Forced Labor__

The use of forced labor is not new. Slavery in the United States and across the world before the nineteenth century was commonplace. The Japanese forces used manual labor for either work camps or for use on major construction projects.

The Burma-Siam Railway was when Japanese troops needed a supply line through Indochina and needed labor to keep it maintained. The main workers on that railway were Australian POWs and their stories of the conditions on the railway.

A good representation in media was the film “The Bridge on the River Kwai” where it was based off the workers and Japanese involvement in Burma and Siam.

__Rape and Comfort Women__

The Japanese as a military power with no regard to human rights is a ripe fruit to commit rape. Soldiers of the Imperial Army have committed countless accounts of rape in the territories they occupied since the early thirties. Again, the occupation of Nanking was the greatest account of forced rape.

Comfort women on the other hand are those that have been taken against their will and stationed to Japanese relaxation centers. They are basically property to soldiers and are deemed sexual slaves for their benefit. The most accounts of comfort women accounts come from the occupation of the Korean peninsula and the women involved with the lust of the Japanese forces

** __Comparisons to Nazi Germany__ **

The Japanese were in a sense familiar with aspects to Hitler’s Germany. Since there are distinct similarities and differences between the two, the only clear distinction between these two Axis powers is the realm of which they conquered, fought and lost during World War II.

__Similarities__

Each power had a figurehead that represented what their government stood for. There was Hitler as the father of this new Germany while Emperor Hirohito was viewed as this god figure for the integrity of the Japanese Empire. High-ranking military officials that have positions in seats of government however ran in both governments.

Since both had governments under a military influence, it was therefore easier to manage the crimes that were committed. Hitler had his plan for the Jews of Europe to be systematically exterminated. Japan wanted complete dominance in the Asian sphere of influence and those that didn’t follow their ideology were eliminated. Therefore, the crimes committed by both parties would justify their ideological aims for what they would want in their regimes.

Both Japan and Germany were allies under agreements and recognized each of their governments. During World War II, the Allies’ main objective was the unconditional surrender of both Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. As the war progressed, both had their way to increase the killings and it would mostly go unnoticed until near the end of the war. Since the acquisition of POWs and political opponents was secondhand to their primary objective, the Allies only saw what was on the frontline.

Both Germany and Japan used a labor camp system to deal with their prisoners of war and captive civilian populations. Since both were very open on how to exterminate an intended audience, discrimination was nonexistent during the crimes that were committed.

__Differences unique to Japan__

Although Germany and Japan had similar goals and ideals, Japan had its own unique characteristics that made it stand out during its reign.

It never based its government off of a prejudice towards an ethnic group of people. Its only focus was to gain the entire Pacific under the Japanese banner. Japan was an ally from three decades earlier and actually gains spoils from German held territories and never had a complete restriction of its military and navy.

The methods of killing under the Japanese were more barbaric than what the Germans used. The Nazi’s used a clever art of deception on how they carried out executions in their extermination camps. The Japanese were similar to the barbarian hordes of the past. Beheadings, torture, beatings, cannibalism, and several other crimes gave the mentality that the militant Japanese were human and treated everyone else like an animal. Since Japan’s military didn’t adhere to previous human conventions and the chain of command was very relaxed on authorizing exterminations, there was no restraint on the troops to do as they wished to the enemy.

The majority of Japan’s crimes were unpunished and numerous officers of the Japanese Army got away with crimes against humanity. Since the larger focus of justice was on Germany’s war crimes, Japan was only faced with their government being completely changed by the American military. It should not be mistaken that Japan never faced justice for their crimes. It just took longer to confirm the accounts from POWs and civilians to bring these officials to trial.

It is now known that Japan is responsible for the majority of the crimes committed during its reign. Japan did start involvement with crimes against humanity even before Hitler came to power in Germany. They had been involved longer with attacks against foreign civilians and implementing their “prosperity” policy in their puppet governments.

<span style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin;">The total amount of victims that fell to the Japanese was slightly higher than German victims. An estimated total puts a number around 12 to 14 million people killed from the thirties to 1945. There may be countless others that may have not been counted for. The actual number of people can never be confirmed after years of looking for a sign or a name. Japan for the most part is the main aggressor for the majority of its rule an a focus to American fallout by the end of World War II.

=Memory Culture and Comparisons With the Holocaust= Japanese cultural ideals play a vital part in how the country chooses to remember its role in World War II, and in general, Japan has remained in denial about the atrocities it committed in the Pacific region during this time period. Japanese culture glorifies many soldiers who were wartime criminals, proclaiming them to be “samurais”, and giving the public a positive view of the men who caused a tremendous amount of destruction in the Pacific theatre. The dissenters from these ideas of glorifying wart criminals are typically intellectuals or soldiers who witnessed atrocities firsthand (Feckler).

The memory culture in Japan largely partakes in the glorification of war criminals, failing to acknowledge their crimes. Most memorials in Japan that commemorate the war honor the Japanese who died as victims of the war. Both the Hiroshima Peace Museum and the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum remember the Japanese killed by America’s bombing. “Thus, historically Japan has long used the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to portray itself as the victim of the second World War and to conveniently forget (or cover up) the aggression and colonization it had committed in Asia” (Kishimoto). The memorials dedicated to the Japanese who fought during World War II show them in a positive light, touting them as heroes. At this time, there are no memorials for the Chinese victims of Japan’s wartime atrocities, nor for any of the other nationalities affected by Japan during the war. Denial of Japan’s transgressions is so ingrained in their culture that history textbooks used in Japan’s education system must go through the Ministry of Education to be censored (Kishimoto).

This fact has been the source of much controversy. One memorial that has been particularly controversial since the war is the Yasukuni Shrine, which honors soldiers who have died for their country since 1853. Included in this shrine are many Japanese soldiers who fought in World War II. The website for the shrine states that “These people, regardless of their rank or social standing, are considered to be completely equal and worshipped as venerable divinities of Yasukuni”. Citizens of the countries victimized by Japan in World War II resent the fact that Japan denies any wrongdoing, equating some war criminals with deity. In recent years, multiple government officials have paid visits to the shrine to pay homage to Japanese soldiers, stirring up disdain from the Chinese who are still bitter about Japan’s denial of its atrocities (Kishimoto).

On January 23, 2000, a conference whose point was to discredit any claim of the Nanjing Massacre, was held at a peace museum in Osaka. In addition to denial, many members of the Japanese community have tried to discredit the witnesses of the atrocities in China. This is a far cry from what Germany has done with its memory of the Holocaust. In 1951, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenaur admitted that the German people were responsible for the Holocaust and it was their “moral obligation” to make reparations. Meanwhile, it took Japan until 1993 to issue its first apology. Germany has paid $60 billion in reparations to its wartime victims and their families, and Japan has yet to pay anything. Overall, “compared with the West Germans, the Japanese have paid less attention to the suffering they inflicted on others, and shown a greater inclination to shift the blame” (Schoenfeld).

Japan has made some attempts at reconciliation for its crimes against humanity, which largely came as a result of increased pressure by other Asian countries for such in the 1980s. On June 9, 1995, The House of Representatives of Japan issued the Fusen Ketsugi, or the Resolution to Renew the Determination for Peace on the Basis of Lessons Learned. It states: “On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II, this House offers its sincere condolences to those who fell in action and victims of wars and similar actions all over the world. Solemnly reflecting upon many instances of colonial rule and acts of aggression in the modern history of the world, and recognizing that Japan carried out those acts in the past, inflicting pain and suffering upon the peoples of other countries, especially in Asia, the Members of this House express a sense of deep remorse. We must transcend the differences over historical views of the past war and learn humbly the lessons of history so as to build a peaceful international society. This House expresses its resolve, under the banner of eternal peace enshrined in the Constitution of Japan, to join hands with other nations of the world and to pave the way to a future that allows all human beings to live together.” (Mukae)

This “apology” was not without controversy. Critics point out that the statement shows regret yet lacks an actual apology. The release of this statement was full of turmoil, with politicians in constant disagreement over the depth of their apology. As Kyoko Kishimoto astutely points out, "almost fifty years after World War II's end in the Pacific, Japan is still agonizing over what to say about it.” Kishimoto reasons that the lack of restitution associated with the apology subtracts from its legitimacy. Meanwhile, Germany has paid more than $61.8 billion in reparations to Israel and Third Reich victims (Schoenfeld).

There have been other apologies issued by Japan for its policies in World War II. As recently as 2005, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi released a statement on the 60th anniversary of the end of the war, stating: “In the past, Japan, through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations. Sincerely facing these facts of history, I once again express my feelings of deep remorse and heartfelt apology, and also express the feelings of mourning for all victims, both at home and abroad, in the war. I am determined not to allow the lessons of that horrible war to erode, and to contribute to the peace and prosperity of the world without ever again waging a war.” (Craig)

Japanese politicians have released many statements recognizing the destruction their country caused years ago, yet in general politicians have failed to make amends with each country personally, and have also failed to full disclosure of their crimes against humanity. This is a major way in which Japan and Germany have differed in their dealing with their atrocities during World War II. Germany has a massive Holocaust memorial culture, one of the most prominent being the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, which sees roughly 10,000 visitors each day. The Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum is another, and is one of the many death/work camp landscapes that have been preserved to remember the Holocaust.

Germany also has issued many apologies for its crimes against humanity. In April 1990, before the fall of the Berlin Wall, East Germany issued the following: "East Germany's first freely elected Parliament admits joint responsibility on behalf of the people for the humiliation, expulsion and murder of Jewish women, men and children". Another notable example of such an expression of guilt is when former Chancellor Willy Brandt fell to his knees in front of the Warsaw Ghetto in 1970. While these examples are among the most prominent, they are not the only ones. Ever since the end of the war, Germany has been paying reparations and making apologies, and the response from the Jewish community has overall been positive, contrasting greatly with the relations between the Japan and its victims (LA Times).

References

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10. Feckler, M. (August 15, 2005). //60 Years After Its Defeat, Japan Still Struggling With Responsibility.// Retrieved from the New York Times.

11. Kishimoto, Kyoko. (October, 2004). //Apologies for Atrocities: Commemorating the 50th Anniversary of World War II’s End in the United States and Japan.// Retrieved from American Studies International 42.2.

12. Craig, Coleman. (September 6, 1995). //Murayama Issues Japan’s First Unambiguous Apology for World War II.// Retrieved from Korea Times vol. 1.

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14. "Japan's Economic Expansion into China in World War 2." //HistoryOrb.com - Articles, Birthdays & Today in History//. Web. 28 Nov. 2011. <http://www .hi

15. Mukae, Ryuji. "Japan's Diet Resolution on World War Two: Keeping History at Bay." //Asian Survey// 36.10 (1996): 1011-30.//ProQuest.// Web. 29 Nov. 2011.

16. Schoenfeld, Gabriel. "Holocaust Reparations--a Growing Scandal." //Commentary// 2000: 25-34. //ProQuest Research Library.// Web. 29 Nov. 2011 <http://ezproxy.msu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/195865978?accountid=12598>.// // storyorb .com/asia/japan_economic_expansion.shtml>. // //17. "Germany Apologizes To Jews | East Germany Apologizes : Message to Jews Accepts Nazi Atrocity Reponsibility : New Gov't. Asks Israel to Forgive - Los Angeles Times."// Featured Articles From The Los Angeles Times//. 12 Apr. 1990. Web. 29 Nov. 2011. <http://articles.latimes.com/1990-04-12/news/mn-1752_1_east-germany>.